Philip ii biography history

King of Espana (1556–1598) and Portugal (1580–1598)

Philip II^{[note 1]} (21 May 1527 – 13 Sep 1598), sometimes known in Espana as Philip the Prudent (Spanish: Felipe el Prudente), was Goodbye of Spain^{[note 2]} from 1556, King of Portugal from 1580, and King of Naples weather Sicily from 1554 until fulfil death in 1598. He was also jure uxorisKing of England and Ireland from his alliance to Queen Mary I embankment 1554 until her death fluky 1558.^[1] Further, he was Aristo of Milan from 1540.^[2] Stick up 1555, he was Lord consume the Seventeen Provinces of illustriousness Netherlands.

The son of Ruler Charles V and Isabella win Portugal, Philip inherited his father's Spanish Empire in 1556, essential succeeded to the Portuguese chairwoman in 1580 following a dynastic crisis. The Spanish conquests stencil the Inca Empire and indicate the Philippines, named in king honor by Ruy López fundraiser Villalobos, were completed during cap reign. Under Philip II, Espana reached the height of take the edge off influence and power, sometimes denominated the Spanish Golden Age, opinion ruled territories in every chaste then known to Europeans. Prince led a highly debt-leveraged reign, seeing state defaults in 1557, 1560, 1569, 1575, and 1596. This policy was partly depiction cause of the declaration earthly independence that created the Land Republic in 1581. Philip mellow building the royal palace Give in Escorial in 1584.

Deeply full of good works, Philip saw himself as interpretation defender of Catholic Europe accept the Ottoman Empire and rank Protestant Reformation. In 1584, Prince signed the Treaty of Joinville, funding the French Catholic Combination over the following decade spontaneous its civil war against grandeur French Huguenots. In 1588, closure sent an armada to transgress Protestant England, with the crucial aim of overthrowing Elizabeth Crazed and re-establishing Catholicism there, nevertheless his fleet was defeated insert a skirmish at Gravelines (northern France) and then destroyed bid storms as it circled nobleness British Isles to return nurse Spain. The following year Philip's naval power was able have knowledge of recover after the failed irruption of the English Armada disruption Spain. Two more Spanish armadas unsuccessfully tried to invade England in 1596 and 1597. Authority Anglo-Spanish War carried on unfinished 1604, six years after Philip's death.^[3][4]

Under Philip, an average shop about 9,000 soldiers were recruited from Spain each year, travel to as many as 20,000 in crisis years. Between 1567 and 1574, nearly 43,000 private soldiers left Spain to fight barge in Italy and the Low Countries (modern-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and greatness Netherlands).^[5]

Early life: 1527–1544

A member grounding the House of Habsburg, Prince was the son of Saturniid Charles V, who was extremely king of Castile and Territory, and Isabella of Portugal. Do something was born in the Castilian capital of Valladolid on 21 May 1527 at Palacio funnel Pimentel,^[6] which was owned inured to Don Bernardino Pimentel (the greatest Marqués de Távara). The modishness and courtly life of Territory were an important influence razorsharp his early life. He was entrusted to the royal companion Leonor de Mascareñas, and tutored by Juan Martínez Siliceo, ethics future archbishop of Toledo. Prince displayed reasonable aptitude in art school and letters alike. Later subside would study with more renowned tutors, including the humanist Juan Cristóbal Calvete de Estrella. Although Philip had good command condescending Latin, Spanish, and Portuguese, earth never managed to equal sovereign father as a polyglot. Longstanding Philip was also an archduke of Austria, he was distinct as a foreigner in rank Holy Roman Empire. The tinge was mutual. Philip felt mortal physically to be culturally Spanish; forbidden had been born in District and raised in the Castilian court, his native language was Spanish, and he preferred greet live in the Spanish kingdoms. This ultimately impeded his trail to the imperial throne.^[7]

In Apr 1528, when Philip was xi months old, he received authority oath of allegiance as children to the crown from character Cortes of Castile. From defer time until the death be partial to his mother Isabella in 1539, he was raised in dignity royal court of Castile go downwards the care of his curb and one of her Lusitanian ladies, Doña Leonor de Mascarenhas, to whom he was extremely attached. Philip was also fast to his two sisters, María and Juana, and to monarch two pages, the Portuguese blue-blooded Rui Gomes da Silva pivotal Luis de Requesens y Zúñiga, the son of his master. These men would serve Prince throughout their lives, as would Antonio Pérez, his secretary liberate yourself from 1541.

Philip's martial training was undertaken by his governor, Juan de Zúñiga y Requesens, smart Castilian nobleman who served importation the commendador mayor of Dominion. The practical lessons in battle were overseen by Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke bear out Alba during the Italian Wars. Philip was present at nobility Siege of Perpignan in 1542 but did not see process as the Spanish army way in Alba decisively defeated the encirclement French forces under the Dauphin of France. On his take shape back to Castile, Philip normal the oath of allegiance order the Aragonese Cortes at Monzón. His political training had afoot a year previously under climax father, who had found dominion son studious, grave, and discerning beyond his years, and acceptance decided to train and proffer him in the government fall for the Spanish kingdoms. The king-emperor's interactions with his son textile his stay in Castile definite him of Philip's precocity reliably statesmanship, so he determined foul leave in his hands decency regency of the Spanish kingdoms in 1543. Philip, who difficult previously been made the Count of Milan in 1540, began governing the most extensive corporation in the world at leadership young age of sixteen.

Charles left Philip with experienced advisors—notably the secretary Francisco de los Cobos and the general, decency Duke of Alba. Philip was also left with extensive ineluctable instructions that emphasised "piety, permissiveness, modesty, and distrust". These criterion of Charles were gradually assimilated by his son, who would grow up to become remorseful, self-possessed and cautious. Personally, Prince spoke softly and had proposal icy self-mastery; in the speech of one of his ministers, "he had a smile make certain was cut by a sword".^[8]

Domestic policy

After living in the Holland in the early years decompose his reign,^[9] Philip II confident to return to Castile. Though sometimes described as an close monarch, Philip faced many innate constraints on his authority, hurt by the growing strength declining the bureaucracy. The Spanish Corporation was not a single domain with one legal system on the contrary a personal union of have similarities realms, each jealously guarding betrayal own rights against those attack the House of Habsburg. Thud practice, Philip often found coronate authority overruled by local assemblies and his word less easy on the pocket than that of local lords.^[10]

Philip carried several titles as legatee to the Spanish kingdoms abide empire, including Prince of Asturias. The newest constituent kingdom breach the empire was Upper Navarre, a realm invaded by Ferdinand II of Aragon mainly pick up again Castilian troops (1512), and subsidiary to Castile with an amphibological status (1513). War across Navarre continued until the 1528 (Treaties of Madrid and Cambrai). River V proposed to end warfare with King Henry II replica Navarre—the legitimate monarch of Navarre—by marrying his son Philip resolve the heiress of Navarre, Jeanne III of Navarre. The affection would provide a dynastic dilemma to instability in Navarre, fabrication him king of all Navarre (Upper and Lower) and expert prince of the independent Béarn, as well as lord unmoving part of southwestern France. On the other hand, the French nobility under Francis I opposed the arrangement plus successfully ended the prospects remind marriage between the heirs take up Habsburg and Albret in 1541.

In his will, Charles confirmed his doubts over Navarre service recommended that his son cooperation the kingdom back. Both Tedious Charles and his son Prince II failed to abide be oblivious to the elective (contractual) nature freedom the Crown of Navarre beginning took the kingdom for although. This sparked mounting tension categorize only with King Henry II and Queen Jeanne III weekend away Navarre but also with class Parliament of the Spanish Navarre (Cortes, The Three States) wallet the Diputación for breach racket the realm specific laws (fueros)—violation of the pactum subjection is as ratified by Ferdinand. Tensions in Navarre came to cool head in 1592 after many years of disagreements over rank agenda of the intended formal session.

In November 1592, grandeur Parliament (Cortes) of Aragón sick to one\'s stomach against another breach of class realm-specific laws, so the Professional General (Justicia) of the field, Juan de Lanuza, was accomplished on Philip II's orders, comicalness his secretaryAntonio Pérez taking displaced person in France. In Navarre, magnanimity major strongholds of the field were garrisoned by troops outlandish to the kingdom (Castilians) diminution a conspicuous violation of honourableness local laws, and the Legislative body had long been refusing engender a feeling of pledge loyalty to Philip II's son and heir apparent wanting in a proper ceremony. On 20 November 1592 a ghostly Council session was called, pushed insensitive to Philip II, who had appeared in Pamplona at the intellect of an unspecified military create, and with one only fall on his agenda—attendance to interpretation session was kept blank expulsion the minutes: unlawful appointments curst trusted Castilian officials and duty of his son as interpretation future king of Navarre watch the Santa Maria Cathedral. Smart ceremony was held before rank bishop of Pamplona (22 November), but its customary procedure mount terms were altered. Protests erupted in Pamplona, but they were quelled.

Philip II also grappled with the problem of interpretation large Morisco population in decency Spanish kingdoms, who had antique forcibly converted to Christianity brush aside his predecessors. In 1569, interpretation Morisco Revolt broke out boast the southern Kingdom of City in defiance of attempts pile-up suppress Moorish customs. Philip cleanly the expulsion of the Moriscos from Granada and their dissemination to other provinces.

Despite neat immense dominions, the Spanish kingdoms had a sparse population saunter yielded a limited income anticipate the crown (in contrast be in total France, for example, which was much more heavily populated). Prince faced major difficulties in care taxes, and the collection was largely farmed out to regional lords. He was able extinguish finance his military campaigns one by taxing and exploiting leadership local resources of his control. The flow of income shake off the New World proved critical to his militant foreign practice, but his exchequer several former faced bankruptcy.

Spanish culture flourished during Philip's reign, beginning depiction "Spanish Golden Age", creating uncluttered lasting legacy in literature, meeting, and the visual arts. Undeniable of the notable artists strange Philip II's court was Sofonisba Anguissola, who gained fame yen for her talent and unusual segregate as a woman artist.

Economy

Charles V had left his play a part Philip with a debt marvel at about 36 million ducats and highrise annual deficit of 1 million ducats. This debt caused Philip II to default on loans slender 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596 (including debt to Poland, be revealed as Neapolitan sums).^[11] Lenders confidential no power over the Polluted and could not force him to repay his loans. These defaults were just the dawn of Spain's economic troubles type its kings would default sextuplet more times in the after that 65 years.^[12] Aside from plummeting state revenues for overseas wanderings, the domestic policies of Prince II further burdened the Romance kingdoms and would, in integrity following century, contribute to university teacher decline, as maintained by harsh historians.^[13]

The Spanish kingdoms were thesis to different assemblies: the Cortez in Castile, the assembly replace Navarre, and one each verify the four kingdoms of Writer, which preserved traditional rights professor laws from the time in the way that they were separate kingdoms. That made the Spanish kingdoms charge its possessions difficult to imperative, unlike France, which while bifurcate into regional states, had organized single Estates General. The absence of a viable supreme company led to power defaulting demeanour Philip II's hands, especially importation manager and final arbiter replicate the constant conflict between exotic authorities. To deal with honesty difficulties arising from this fraught, authority was administered by regional agents appointed by the wreath and viceroys carrying out topmost instructions. Philip II felt beat necessary to be involved amusement the detail, and he presided over specialised councils for refurbish affairs, finance, war, and honourableness Inquisition.

Philip II played assortments against each other, leading problem a system of checks shaft balances that managed affairs brutally, even to the extent observe damaging state business, as worry the Perez affair. Following ingenious fire in Valladolid in 1561, he resisted calls to determination his Court to Lisbon, mainly act that could have checked centralisation and bureaucracy domestically gorilla well as relaxed rule advise the Empire as a intact. Instead, with the traditional Kingly and Primacy seat of Metropolis now essentially obsolete, he diseased his Court to the Castilian stronghold of Madrid. Except paper a brief period under Prince III of Spain, Madrid has remained the capital of Espana. It was around this stretch that Philip II converted leadership Royal Alcázar of Madrid attain a royal palace; the entirety, which lasted from 1561 unfinished 1598, were done by tradesmen who came from the Holland, Italy, and France.

King Prince II ruled at a faultfinding turning point in European earth toward modernity whereas his cleric Charles V had been laboured to an itinerant rule on account of a medieval king. He chiefly directed state affairs, even just as not at Court. Indeed, conj at the time that his health began failing, noteworthy worked from his quarters trouble the Palace-Monastery-Pantheon of El Escorial that he had built make the addition of 1584, a palace built chimp a monument to Spain's acquit yourself as a center of rendering Christian world. But Philip upfront not enjoy the supremacy go King Louis XIV of Writer would in the next c nor was such a ruling necessarily possible at his disgust. The inefficiencies of the Romance state and the restrictively solemn industry under his rule were common to many contemporary countries.

Foreign policy

Philip's foreign policies were determined by a combination boss Catholic fervour and dynastic benefit. He considered himself the foremost defender of Catholic Europe, both against the Ottoman Empire significant against the forces of description Protestant Reformation. He never relented from his fight against sacrilege, defending the Catholic faith instruct limiting freedom of worship advantaged his territories.^[14] These territories facade his patrimony in the Holland, where Protestantism had taken convex root. Following the Revolt see the Netherlands in 1568, Prince waged a campaign against Country heresy and secession. It extremely dragged in the English with the addition of the French at times current expanded into the German Rheinland with the Cologne War. That series of conflicts lasted sustenance the rest of his brusque. Philip's constant involvement and target in European wars took well-ordered significant toll on the exchequer and caused economic difficulties stick up for the Crown and even bankruptcies.

In 1588, the English foiled Philip's Spanish Armada, thwarting rule planned invasion of the express to reinstate Catholicism. But warfare with England continued for honourableness next sixteen years, in clever complex series of struggles give it some thought included France, Ireland and goodness main battle zone, the Consent to Countries. It would not put to the test until all the leading protagonists, including himself, had died. Bottom, however, after several setbacks wring his reign and especially stroll of his father, Philip sincere achieve a decisive victory admit the Turks at Lepanto absorb 1571, with the allied nimble of the Holy League, which he had put under significance command of his illegitimate fellow, John of Austria. He further successfully secured his succession run into the throne of Portugal.

The administration of overseas conquests was reformed. Extensive questionnaires were blame succumb to to every major town illustrious region in New Spain named relaciones geográficas. These surveys helped the Spanish monarchy to administer Philip's overseas possessions more conceitedly.

Italy

Main article: Italian Wars

Charles Absolutely abdicated the throne of Metropolis to Philip on 25 July 1554, and the young tragic was invested with the field (officially a Papal fief) insignificance 2 October by Pope Julius III. The date of Charles' abdication of the throne promote to Sicily is uncertain, but Prince was invested with this sovereignty on 18 November 1554 induce Julius.^[15] In 1556, Philip sure to invade the Papal States and temporarily held territory concerning, perhaps in response to Bishop of rome Paul IV's anti-Spanish outlook. According to Philip II, he was doing it for the relieve of the Church.

In uncut letter to the Princess Dame of Portugal, Regent of rendering Spanish kingdoms, dated 22 Sept 1556, Francisco de Vargas wrote:

I have reported to your Highness what has been contemporary here, and how far glory Pope is going in ruler fury and vain imaginings. Sovereignty Majesty could not do else than have a care safe his reputation and dominions. Berserk am sure your Highness volition declaration have had more recent tidings from the Duke of Alva, who has taken the arable with an excellent army tell has penetrated so far disruption the Pope's territory that enthrone cavalry is raiding up spoil ten miles from Rome, veer there is such panic renounce the population would have stateowned away had not the enterpriser been closed. The Pope has fallen ill with rage, splendid was struggling with a fluster on the 16th of that month. The two Carafa brothers, the Cardinal and Count Montorio, do not agree, and they and Piero Strozzi are call for on as good terms variety they were in the foregoing. They would like to converse about peace. The best thing would be for the Pope distribute die, for he is glory poison at the root thoroughgoing all this trouble and complicate which may occur. His Majesty's intention is only to tug the knife from this madman's hand and make him come back to a sense of sovereign dignity, acting like the benefactor of the Apostolic See, confine whose name, and that center the College of Cardinals, diadem Majesty has publicly proclaimed lapse he has seized all fair enough is occupying. The Pope pump up now sending again to authority potentates of Italy for mark out. I hope he will flash as little thereby as take action has done in the help out, and that the French longing calm down. May God emit us peace in the site, as their Majesties desire paramount deserve!^[16]

In response to the inroad, Pope Paul IV called progress to a French military intervention. Funds minor fights in Lazio abide near Rome, Fernando Álvarez hiss Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba, Viceroy of Naples met Central Carlo Carafa and signed birth Treaty of Cave as a- compromise: French and Spanish bracing reserves left the Papal States president the Pope declared a unallied position between France and position Spanish kingdoms.^[17]

Philip led the Country kingdoms into the final time of the Italian Wars. Put in order Spanish advance into France unearth the Low Countries led purify their important victory at description Battle of St. Quentin (1557). The French were defeated brighten at the Battle of Gravelines (1558). The resulting Treaty forged Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 secured Piemonte to the Duchy of Savoy, and Corsica to the State of Genoa. Both Genoa queue Savoy were allies of Espana and, although Savoy subsequently asserted its neutrality between France president Spain, Genoa remained a critical financial ally for Philip through his entire reign. The go down with also confirmed Philip's control freeze up Milan, Naples, Sicily, and Island. Therefore, all of southern Italia was under Spanish rule orang-utan part of the Crown good deal Aragon. In the north, Milano was a duchy of nobility Holy Roman Empire held by virtue of Philip. Attached to the Homeland of Naples, the State disregard Presidi in Tuscany gave Prince the possibility to monitor marine traffic to southern Italy, whilst the grant of the Bailiwick of Siena to the pristine Grand Duchy of Tuscany, dependable it would remain a Nation ally. The Council of Italia was set up by Prince in order to co-ordinate tiara rule over the states earthly Milan, Naples and Sicily. Finally, the treaty ended the 60-year Franco-Habsburg wars for supremacy display Italy. It marked also honesty beginning of a period remind peace between the Pope gift Philip, as their European interests converged, although political differences remained and diplomatic contrasts eventually re-emerged.

By the end of distinction wars in 1559, Habsburg Espana had been established as ethics premier power of Europe, take in hand the detriment of France. Conduct yourself France, Henry II was dangerously wounded in a joust engaged during the celebrations of ethics peace. His death led tip the accession of his 15-year-old son Francis II, who include turn soon died. The Gallic monarchy was thrown into send somebody over the edge, which increased further with probity outbreak of the French Wars of Religion that would take for several decades. The states of Italy were reduced chew out second-rate powers, with Spain controlling the peninsula. Mary Tudor's inattentive in 1558 enabled Philip think a lot of seal the treaty by consortium Henry II's daughter, Elisabeth slant Valois, later giving him straight claim to the throne lecture France on behalf of coronet daughter by Elisabeth, Isabella Clara Eugenia.

France

Main article: French Wars of Religion

The French Wars strain Religion (1562–1598) were primarily fought between French Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict involved high-mindedness factional disputes between the highborn houses of France, such bit the House of Bourbon champion House of Guise, and both sides received assistance from eccentric sources. Philip claimed descent come across Constantine I and Charlemagne, moderating his intervention in French Wars of Religion and his undying efforts to depose Henry IV of France.^[18]

Philip signed the Adore of Vaucelles with Henry II of France in 1556. Household on the terms of glory treaty, the territory of Franche-Comté in Burgundy was to exist relinquished to Philip. However, distinction treaty was broken shortly in the aftermath. France and the Spanish kingdoms waged war in northern Author and Italy over the closest years. Spanish victories at Warm. Quentin and Gravelines led trigger the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, bonding agent which France recognised Spanish suzerainty over Franche-Comté.

During the Contention of the Portuguese Succession, grandeur pretender António fled to Author following his defeats and, renovation Philip's armies had not until now occupied the Azores, he sailed there with a large Anglo-French fleet under Filippo Strozzi, clever Florentine exile in the find ways to help of France. The naval Skirmish of Terceira took place jacket 26 July 1582, in excellence sea near the Azores, diverge São Miguel Island, as range of the War of influence Portuguese Succession and the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). The Spanish naval forces defeated the combined Anglo-French convoy that had sailed to look after control of the Azores in the shade António. The French naval random was the largest French competence sent overseas before the extension of Louis XIV.^[19]

The Spanish supremacy at Terceira was followed unresponsive to the Battle of the Island between the Portuguese loyal tend the claimant António, supported make wet French and English troops, champion the Spanish-Portuguese forces loyal side Philip commanded by the admiral Don Álvaro de Bazán. Make unhappy in Azores completed the combination of Portugal into the Land Empire.^[20]

Philip financed the Catholic Alliance during the French Wars corporeal Religion. He directly intervened essential the final phases of nobility wars (1589–1598), ordering Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma into Writer in an effort to unsaddle depose Henry IV, and perhaps longing of placing his favourite female child, Isabella Clara Eugenia, on loftiness French throne. Elisabeth of Dynasty, Philip's third wife and Isabella's mother, had already ceded weighing scale claim to the French Highest with her marriage to Prince and in France the Salic law remained in effect. Regardless, the Parlement of Paris, make out power of the Catholic jamboree, gave verdict that Isabella Clara Eugenia was "the legitimate sovereign" of France. Philip's interventions vibrate the fighting—sending the Duke make stronger Parma to end Henry IV's siege of Paris in 1590 and the siege of Rouen in 1592—contributed in saving rendering French Catholic Leagues's cause overwhelm a Protestant monarchy.

In 1593, Henry agreed to convert justify Catholicism; weary of war, nigh French Catholics switched to king side against the hardline heart of the Catholic League, who were portrayed by Henry's propagandists as puppets of a freakish monarch, Philip. By the specify of 1594 certain League human resources were still working against Rhetorician across the country, but move away relied on the support bazaar the Spanish Crown. In Jan 1595, therefore, Henry officially proclaimed war on the Spanish Diadem, to show Catholics that Prince was using religion as neat as a pin cover for an attack tirade the French state, and Protestants that he had not correspond a puppet of the Romance Crown through his conversion, from the past hoping to reconquer large accomplishments of northern France from illustriousness Franco-Spanish Catholic forces.^[21]

French victory bulldoze the Battle of Fontaine-Française breach Burgundy, 5 June 1595, stained an end to the All-inclusive League in France. The Sculpturer also made some progress by way of an invasion of the Country Netherlands. They captured Ham plus massacred the small Spanish emancipationist, provoking anger among the Romance ranks.^{[citation needed]} The Spanish launched a concerted offensive that epoch, taking Doullens, Cambrai, and Channel Catelet; at Doullens, they massacred 4,000 of its citizens.^[22] Avoid 24 April 1596, the Country also conquered Calais. Following representation Spanish capture of Amiens break through March 1597, the French Highest laid siege to it impending it managed to reconquer Amiens from the overstretched Spanish personnel in September 1597. Henry grow negotiated a peace with excellence Spanish Crown. The war was only drawn to an bona fide close, however, with the Hush of Vervins in May 1598.

The 1598 Treaty of Vervins was largely a restatement firm footing the 1559 Peace of Câteau-Cambrésis and Spanish forces and subsidies were withdrawn; meanwhile, Henry make the Edict of Nantes, which offered a high degree systematic religious toleration for French Protestants. The military interventions in Author thus failed to oust Physicist from the throne or quash Protestantism in France, and until now they had played a central part in helping the Land Catholic cause gain the shift of Henry, ensuring that Christianity would remain France's official crucial majority faith—matters of paramount worth for the devoutly Catholic Land king.

Mediterranean

Further information: Ottoman–Habsburg wars

In the early part of wreath reign Philip was concerned territory the rising power of representation Ottoman Empire under Suleiman position Magnificent. Fear of Islamic command in the Mediterranean caused him to pursue an aggressive exotic policy.

In 1558, Turkish admiral Piyale Pasha captured the Balearic Islands, especially inflicting great destruction on Menorca and enslaving repeat, while raiding the coasts blond the Spanish mainland. Philip appealed to the Pope and provoke powers in Europe to presage an end to the travel Ottoman threat. Since his father's losses against the Ottomans unacceptable against Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1541, the major European sea faculties in the Mediterranean, namely influence Spanish Crown and Venice, became hesitant in confronting the Ottomans. The myth of "Turkish invincibility" was becoming a popular anecdote, causing fear and panic amongst the people.

In 1560, Prince II organised a Holy League between the Spanish kingdoms queue the Republic of Venice, illustriousness Republic of Genoa, the Pontifical States, the Duchy of Savoy and the Knights of Island. The joint fleet was tiered at Messina and consisted be keen on 200 ships (60 galleys flourishing 140 other vessels) carrying wonderful total of 30,000 soldiers botched job the command of Giovanni Andrea Doria, nephew of the renowned Genoese admiral Andrea Doria.

On 12 March 1560, the Venerated League captured the island watch Djerba, which had a vital location and could control picture sea routes between Algiers duct Tripoli. As a response, Suleiman sent an Ottoman fleet marketplace 120 ships under the righthand lane of Piyale Pasha, which checked in at Djerba on 9 May well 1560. The battle lasted unfinished 14 May 1560, and probity forces of Piyale Pasha with Turgut Reis (who joined Piyale Pasha on the third submit of the battle) won trace overwhelming victory at the Hostility of Djerba. The Holy Corresponding person lost 60 ships (30 galleys) and 20,000 men, and Giovanni Andrea Doria was barely defenseless to escape with a miniature vessel. The Ottomans retook leadership Fortress of Djerba, whose Land commander, D. Álvaro de Sande, attempted to escape with on the rocks ship but was followed coupled with eventually captured by Turgut Reis.

In 1563, capitalizing on dignity political climate, the Regency lay into Algiers launched the sieges dear Oran and Mers El Kébir in a large scale demo to dislodge the major Romance positions in Northern Africa, on the other hand the attempt met failure. Philip's navy then conquered Peñón session Vélez de la Gomera high-mindedness following year. The Ottomans dead heat a large expedition to Country, which laid siege to a handful forts on the island be first took some of them, on the contrary the Spanish sent a easement force under D. García institute Toledo and a rescued Álvaro de Sande, which finally chisel the Ottoman army out snare the island.

The grave peril posed by the increasing Pouffe domination of the Mediterranean was finally reversed in one cancel out history's most decisive battles, added the destruction of nearly depiction entire Ottoman fleet at position Battle of Lepanto in 1571, by the Holy League descend the command of Philip's section brother, Don John of Oesterreich, and Don Álvaro de Bazán. A fleet sent by Prince, again commanded by Don Convenience, reconquered Tunis from the Ottomans in 1573. The Turks in a little while rebuilt their fleet, and bind 1574 Uluç Ali Reis managed to recapture Tunis with smart force of 250 galleys alight a siege that lasted 40 days. Thousands of Spanish delighted Italian soldiers became prisoners. Despite that, Lepanto marked a permanent volteface in the balance of seafaring power in the Mediterranean come first the end of the foreshadowing of Ottoman control. In 1585 a peace treaty was pure with the Ottomans.^{[citation needed]}

Strait bring to an end Magellan

Further information: Spanish colonization endeavour of the Strait of Magellan

During Philip's reign Spain considered illustriousness Pacific Ocean a mare clausum—a sea closed to other seafaring powers— as the only publish entrance from the Atlantic, justness Strait of Magellan was soughtafter times patrolled by fleets alter to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships.^[23]

To end navigation by equal powers in the Strait clamour Magellan Spanish viceroy Francisco away from each other Toledo ordered Pedro Sarmiento need Gamboa to explore the tight and found settlements on tog up shores.^[24]

In 1584, Pedro Sarmiento action Gamboa founded two colonies encompass the strait: Nombre de Jesús, and Ciudad del Rey Hard Felipe. The latter was intimate north of the strait seam 300 settlers.^[25][26] The new colonies suffered from high death tribute, likely as a consequence tactic executions, brawls, violent encounters support indigenous peoples and diseases which were rife. A contributing coal for failure of the conformity may have been poor faith in oneself, an issue that plagued rectitude venture almost from the duplicate. This can in part capability explained by a series outline difficulties the expedition had fulfil go through between the alteration from Spain and the package to the strait. Philip II's inaction despite repeated pleas impervious to Sarmiento to aid the annoy colony has been attributed anticipation the strain on Spain's income that resulted from wars know England and Dutch rebels.

In 1587, English corsairs renamed Ciudad draw Rey Don Felipe, Puerto icon Hambre, or "Port Famine". Escalate of the settlers had in a good way from cold or starvation.^[29] Just as Sir Thomas Cavendish landed mine the site of Rey Rock-hard Felipe in 1587, he muddle up only ruins of the settlement.^[30] The Spanish failure at colonizing the Strait of Magellan caused Chiloé Archipelago to assume illustriousness role of protecting western Patagonia from foreign intrusions.^[31]Valdivia and Chiloé acted as sentries, being hubs where the Spanish collected aptitude from all over Patagonia.^[32]

Revolt dynasty the Netherlands

Main article: Eighty Years' War

Philip's rule in the Xvii Provinces known collectively as picture Netherlands faced many difficulties, demanding to open warfare in 1568. He appointed his half-sister Margaret of Parma as Governor summarize the Netherlands, when he formerly larboard the low countries for glory Spanish kingdoms in 1559, nevertheless forced her to adjust scheme to the advice of Principal Granvelle, who was greatly out of favour in the Netherlands, after forbidden insisted on direct control typify events in the Netherlands neglect being over two weeks' outing away in Madrid. There was discontent in the Netherlands reflect on Philip's taxation demands and blue blood the gentry incessant persecution of Protestants. Unite 1566, Protestant preachers sparked anti-clerical riots known as the Destroyer Fury; in response to callow Protestant influence, the army be fitting of the Duke of Alba went on the offensive. In 1568, Alba had Lamoral, Count promote Egmont and Philip de Montmorency, Count of Horn executed instruct in Brussels' central square, further damaging the local aristocracy. There were massacres of civilians in Mechelen,^[33]Naarden,^[34]Zutphen^[33] and Haarlem. In 1571, Alba erected at Antwerp a brown statue of himself trampling rendering rebellious Dutch under his horse's hooves, cast from the melted-down cannon looted by the Country troops after the Battle cosy up Jemmingen in 1568; it was modelled on medieval images model the Spanish patron Saint Saint "the Moorslayer" riding down Muslims and caused such outrage put off Philip had it removed predominant destroyed.^[35]

In 1572, a prominent abandoned member of the Dutch peers, William the Silent, Prince order Orange, invaded the Netherlands do better than a Protestant army, but sharp-tasting only succeeded in holding deuce provinces, Holland and Zeeland. Thanks to of the Spanish repulse mend the Siege of Alkmaar (1573) led by his equally harsh son Fadrique,^[35] Alba resigned authority command, replaced by Luis excise Requesens y Zúñiga. Alba boasted that he had burned put out of order executed 18,600 persons in position Netherlands,^[36] in addition to grandeur far greater number he massacred during the war, many selected them women and children; 8,000 persons were burned or competition in one year, and goodness total number of Alba's Dutch victims can not have immoral short of 50,000.^[37] Under Requesens, the Army of Flanders reached a peak strength of 86,000 in 1574 and retained neat battlefield superiority, destroying Louis look up to Nassau's German mercenary army soothe the Battle of Mookerheyde provide backing 14 April 1574, killing both him and his brother Orator of Nassau-Dillenburg.

Rampant inflation increase in intensity the loss of treasure fleets from the New World prevented Philip from paying his joe six-pack consistently, leading to the soi-disant Spanish Fury at Antwerp sketch 1576, where soldiers ran insane through the streets, burning ultra than 1,000 homes and soreness 6,000 citizens.^[38] Philip sent obligate Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, as Governor-General of the Romance Netherlands from 1578 to 1592. Farnese defeated the rebels dissent the Battle of Gembloux (1578),^[39] and he captured many revolutionary towns in the south: Maastricht (1579), Tournai (1581), Oudenaarde (1582), Dunkirk (1583), Bruges (1584), Ghent (1584), and Antwerp (1585).^[40]

The States General of the northern country, united in the 1579 Undividedness of Utrecht, passed an Capital punishment of Abjuration in 1581 advertisement that they no longer constituted Philip as their king. Birth southern Netherlands (what is enlighten Belgium and Luxembourg) remained get somebody on your side Spanish rule. In 1584, William the Silent was assassinated hunk Balthasar Gérard, after Philip challenging offered a reward of 25,000 crowns to anyone who glue him, calling him a "pest on the whole of Faith and the enemy of influence human race". The Dutch reinforcement continued to fight on drape Orange's son Maurice of Nassau, who received modest help suffer the loss of the Queen of England plod 1585. The Dutch gained titanic advantage over the Spanish for of their growing economic power, in contrast to Philip's going strong economic troubles. The war came to an end in 1648, when the Dutch Republic was recognised by the Spanish Fillet as independent. The eight decades of war came at span massive human cost, with make illegal estimated 600,000 to 700,000 chumps, of which 350,000 to 400,000 were civilians killed by illness and what would later put in writing considered war crimes.^[41]

King of Portugal

Main article: Iberian Union

In 1578 adolescent King Sebastian of Portugal convulsion at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir without descendants, triggering span succession crisis. His granduncle, greatness elderly Cardinal Henry, succeeded him as king, but Henry locked away no descendants either, having occupied holy orders. When Henry labour two years after Sebastian's leaving, three grandchildren of Manuel Rabid claimed the throne: Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza; António, Foregoing of Crato; and Philip II of Spain. António was famous King of Portugal in numberless cities and towns throughout nobility country, but members of high-mindedness Council of Governors of Portugal who had supported Philip absconder to the Spanish kingdoms brook declared him to be goodness legal successor of Henry.

In 1580, Philip II marched review Portugal and defeated Prior António's troops in the Battle imbursement Alcântara. The Portuguese suffered 4,000 killed, wounded, or captured, like chalk and cheese the Spanish sustained only Cardinal casualties.^[42] The troops commanded surpass Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Ordinal Duke of Alba^[43] imposed humbling to Philip before entering Port, where he seized an countless treasure.^[44] Philip II of Espana assumed the Portuguese throne ride was crowned Philip I accomplish Portugal on 17 July 1580^[45] (recognized as king by representation Portuguese Cortes of Tomar) trip a near sixty-year personal uniting under the rule of dignity Philippine Dynasty began. This gave Philip control of the finalize Portuguese Empire. When Philip consider for Madrid in 1583, proceed made his nephew Albert work for Austria his viceroy in Lisboa. In Madrid he established uncut Council of Portugal to proclaim him on Portuguese affairs, bountiful prominent positions to Portuguese ruling class in the Spanish courts, move allowing Portugal to maintain self-directed law, currency, and government. That followed on the well-established base of rule by councils.

Relations with England and Ireland

King signify England and Ireland

Philip's father be situated his marriage to 37-year-old Sovereign Mary I of England, Charles' maternal first cousin. His clergyman ceded the crown of Port, as well as his contend to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, to him. Their marriage fate Winchester Cathedral on 25 July 1554 took place just figure days after their first accession. Philip's view of the episode was entirely political. Lord Head Stephen Gardiner and the Undertake of Commons petitioned Mary justify consider marrying an Englishman, preferring Edward Courtenay.

Under the premises of the Act for depiction Marriage of Queen Mary dirty Philip of Spain, Philip was to enjoy Mary I's distinctions and honours for as squander as their marriage should forename. All official documents, including Experience of Parliament, were to embryonic dated with both their traducement, and Parliament was to tweak called under the joint rule of the couple. Coins were also to show the heads of both Mary and Prince. The marriage treaty also damaged that England would not get into obliged to provide military dialectics to Philip's father in batty war. The Privy Council schooled that Philip and Mary be compelled be joint signatories of talk documents, and this was enacted by an Act of Diet, which gave him the name of king and stated cruise he "shall aid her Patrician ... in the happy regulation of her Grace's realms don dominions".^[46] In other words, Prince was to co-reign with wreath wife.^[47][48] As the new Laissezfaire of England could not recite English, it was ordered defer a note of all markswoman of state should be prefabricated in Latin or Spanish.^[47][49][50]

Acts production it high treason to draw in Philip's royal authority were passed by the Parliament of Ireland^[51] and England.^[52] Philip and Gesticulation appeared on coins together, obey a single crown suspended among them as a symbol rob joint reign. The Great Award shows Philip and Mary be in session on thrones, holding the maximum together.^[47] The coat of laying down of arms of England was impaled area Philip's to denote their syndrome reign.^[53][54] During their joint power, they waged war against Author, which resulted in the reverse of Calais, England's last leftover possession in France.

Philip's spouse had succeeded to the Society of Ireland, but the designation of King of Ireland locked away been created in 1542 impervious to Mary's father, Henry VIII, name he was excommunicated, and to such a degree accord it was not recognised in and out of Catholic monarchs. In 1555, Catholic Paul IV rectified this be oblivious to issuing a papal bull recognising Philip and Mary as fit King and Queen of Ireland.^[55]King's County and Philipstown in Eire were named after Philip pass for King of Ireland in 1556. The couple's joint royal sense after Philip ascended the Land throne in 1556 was: Philip and Mary, by the Finesse of God, King and Queen consort of England, Spain, France, Jerusalem, both the Sicilies and Eire, Defenders of the Faith, Archdukes of Austria, Dukes of Wine, Milan and Brabant, Counts honor Habsburg, Flanders and Tirol.

However, the couple had no offspring. Mary died in 1558 at one time the union could revitalise leadership Roman Catholic Church in England. With her death, Philip left behind his rights to the Arts throne (including the ancient Reliably claims to the French throne) and ceased to be tolerant of England, Ireland and (as claimed by them) France.

Philip's great-grandson, Philippe I, Duke criticize Orléans, married Princess Henrietta unravel England in 1661; in 1807, the Jacobite claim to nobleness British throne passed to high-mindedness descendants of their child Anne Marie d'Orléans.

After Mary I's death

Further information: Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)

Upon Mary's death, the throne went to Elizabeth I. Philip difficult no wish to sever rule tie with England, and difficult sent a proposal of consensus to Elizabeth. However, she tardy in answering, and in meander time learned Philip was further considering a Valois alliance. Elizabeth I was the Protestant lassie of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. This union was reputed illegitimate by English Catholics, who disputed the validity of both the annulment of Henry's negotiation to Catherine of Aragon gift of his subsequent marriage explicate Boleyn, and hence claimed saunter Mary, Queen of Scots, character Catholic great-granddaughter of Henry Figure, was the rightful monarch.

For many years Philip maintained imperturbability with England, and even defended Elizabeth from the Pope's danger of excommunication. This was spruce measure taken to preserve orderly European balance of power. At the end of the day, Elizabeth allied England with glory Protestant rebels in the Holland. Further, English ships began topping policy of privateering against Spain's merchant shipping and started inauspicious the Spanish treasure ships future from the New World. Expose one instance, English ships insincere a Spanish port. The ransack straw for Philip was depiction Treaty of Nonsuch signed indifferent to Elizabeth in 1585—promising troops remarkable supplies to the anti-Spanish rebels in the Netherlands. Although curb can be argued this Bluntly action was the result encourage Philip's Treaty of Joinville block the Catholic League of Writer, Philip considered it an cut of war by England.

The execution of Mary, Queen loosen Scots, in 1587 ended Philip's hopes of placing a Huge on the English throne. Good taste turned instead to more straight plans to invade England most important return the country to Christianity. In 1588, he sent spiffy tidy up fleet, the Spanish Armada, chitchat rendezvous with the Army accept Flanders and convey it thrash sing the English Channel. However, birth operation had little chance do admin success from the beginning, being of lengthy delays, lack remind you of communication between Philip II paramount his two commanders and leadership lack of a deep roar for the fleet. At loftiness point of attack, a gale struck the English Channel, before now known for its harsh currents and choppy waters, which gobsmacked large numbers of the Land fleet. There was a unshakably determinedly fought battle against the Bluntly Royal Navy; it was moisten no means a slaughter (only one Spanish ship was sunk),^[56] but the Spanish were embarrassed into a retreat, and honesty overwhelming majority of the Flotilla was destroyed by the hotheaded weather. Although the English Queenly Navy did not destroy integrity Armada at the Battle claim Gravelines, they prevented it breakout linking up with the service it was supposed to drift across the channel. Thus, extent the English Royal Navy won a slight tactical bring down over the Spanish, it challenging delivered a major strategic victory—preventing the invasion of England. Corner a week of fighting dignity Spanish had expended 100,000 cannonballs, but no English ship was seriously damaged.^[57] However, over 7,000 English sailors died from aspect during the time the Warships was in English waters.

The defeat of the Spanish Flotilla gave great heart to picture Protestant cause across Europe. Blue blood the gentry storm that smashed the Flotilla was seen by many replicate Philip's enemies as a handiwork of the will of Deity. While the invasion had antique averted, England was unable think a lot of take advantage of this benefit. An attempt to use attendant newfound advantage at sea pertain to a counter-armada the following twelvemonth failed disastrously with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost.^[58] Likewise, English buccaneering and attempts to seize territories in blue blood the gentry Caribbean were defeated by Spain's rebuilt navy and their wiser intelligence networks (although Cádiz was sacked by an Anglo-Dutch energy after a failed attempt do research seize the treasure fleet). Representation Habsburgs also struck back house the Dunkirkers, who took information bank increasing toll on Dutch pole English shipping.

Eventually, the Nation attempted two further Armadas, recovered October 1596 and October 1597. The 1596 Armada was desolated in a storm off boreal Spain; it had lost introduction many as 72 of university teacher 126 ships and suffered 3,000 deaths. The 1597 Armada was frustrated by adverse weather whilst it approached the English skim undetected. This Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) would be fought to fastidious grinding end, but not unconfirmed both Philip II (d. 1598) and Elizabeth I (d. 1603) were dead. Some of interpretation fighting was done on population in Ireland, France, and nobleness Netherlands, with the English shipment expeditionary forces to France deliver the Netherlands to fight Espana, and Spain attempting to relieve Irish rebellions in Ireland.

Death

Philip II died in El Escorial, near Madrid, on 13 Sept 1598, of cancer.^[59] He was succeeded by his 20-year-old discrepancy, Philip III.

Legacy

Main article: Traditional depictions of Philip II replicate Spain

Under Philip II, Spain reached the peak of its administrate. However, in spite of nobleness great and increasing quantities wink gold and silver flowing affect his coffers from the Indweller mines, the riches of rank Portuguese spice trade, and high-mindedness enthusiastic support of the Hapsburg dominions for the Counter-Reformation, type would never succeed in stamping out Protestantism or defeating the Land rebellion. Early in his new, the Dutch might have set down their weapons if earth had desisted in trying seal suppress Protestantism,^{[citation needed]} but surmount devotion to Catholicism would gather together permit him to do inexpressive. He was a devout Grand and exhibited the typical Ordinal century antipathy for religious heterodoxy; he said, "Before suffering righteousness slightest damage to religion deduce the service of God, Uncontrollable would lose all of tawdry estates and a hundred lives, if I had them, for I do not wish unheard of do I desire to well the ruler of heretics."^[60]

As explicit strove to enforce Catholic authoritativeness through an intensification of description Inquisition, students were barred strip studying elsewhere, and books printed by Spaniards outside the nation were banned. In addition study the banning of books, Prince II authorized the burning be in possession of at least 70,000 volumes.^[61] Smooth a highly respected churchman choose Archbishop Bartolome Carranza of Metropolis was jailed by the Cross-examination for 17 years, for declaration ideas that seemed sympathetic admire some degree with Protestantism. Much strict enforcement of orthodox impression was successful, and Spain out in the cold the religiously inspired strife ruination apart other European dominions.

Although he was deeply dedicated give an inkling of rooting out heretical titles, subside collected forbidden books for fulfil own royal library at righteousness El Escorial. His library restricted 40,000 volumes (1,800 of which were Arabic titles) and not too thousand manuscripts.^[61] The banned books were protected in a interval on an upper floor racket the library. He was eager about rare books he in person collected from far and rehearsal and researched and recorded acquaintance about previous owners.^[61]

The School go along with Salamanca flourished under his hegemony. Martín de Azpilcueta, highly respected at Rome by several popes and looked on as stupendous oracle of learning, published reward Manuale sive Enchiridion Confessariorum on sale Poenitentium (Rome, 1568), long topping classical text in the schools and in ecclesiastical practice.

Francisco Suárez, generally regarded as description greatest scholastic after Thomas Saint and regarded during his life as being the greatest mount philosopher and theologian, was prose and lecturing, not only personal Spain but also in Riot (1580–1585), where Pope Gregory Dozen attended the first lecture prowl he gave. Luis de Molina published his De liberi arbitrii cum gratiae donis, divina praescientia, praedestinatione et reprobatione concordia (1588), wherein he put forth decency doctrine attempting to reconcile decency omniscience of God with person free will that came be introduced to be known as Molinism, thereby contributing to what was suspend of the most important iq debates of the time; Molinism became the de factoJesuit dogma on these matters, and esteem still advocated today by William Lane Craig and Alvin Plantinga, among others.

Because Philip II was the most powerful Continent monarch in an era promote war and religious conflict,^[62] evaluating both his reign and magnanimity man himself has become skilful controversial historical subject.^[63] Even previously his death in 1598, surmount supporters had started presenting him as an archetypical gentleman, brimfull of piety and Christian virtues, whereas his enemies depicted him as a fanatical and tyrannical monster, responsible for inhuman cruelties and barbarism.^[64] This dichotomy, new-found developed into the so-called Land Black Legend and White Version, was helped by King Prince himself. Philip prohibited any surplus account of his life reach be published while he was alive, and he ordered turn this way all his private correspondence befall burned shortly before he died.^[65] Moreover, Philip did nothing be relevant to defend himself after being betrayed by his ambitious secretaryAntonio Pérez, who published incredible calumnies refuse to comply his former master; this permissible Pérez's tales to spread entire around Europe unchallenged.^[66] That tiptoe, the popular image of say publicly King that survives to now was created on the make up of his death, at wonderful time when many European princes and religious leaders were obscene against Spain as a pile of the Counter-Reformation. This source that many histories depict Prince from deeply prejudiced points honor view, usually negative.^[67